Born in Gah, now located in Pakistan, Singh's family migrated to India during the partition in 1947. After earning a doctorate in economics from the University of Oxford, he worked with the United Nations between 1966 and 1969. His bureaucratic career began when Lalit Narayan Mishra appointed him as an advisor in the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Singh held several influential roles in the Indian government, including Chief Economic Advisor (1972–1976), Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (1982–1985), and Chairperson of the Planning Commission (1985–1987).
In 1991, during a severe economic crisis in India, newly elected Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao brought the non-political Manmohan Singh into his cabinet as Finance Minister. Over the following years, Singh implemented significant structural reforms to liberalize India’s economy, despite facing strong opposition. These measures not only helped the nation overcome the crisis but also established Singh’s global reputation as a visionary economist. However, the Congress Party performed poorly in the 1996 general election. Following this, Singh served as the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha (India’s upper house of Parliament) during Atal Bihari Vajpayee's government from 1998 to 2004.
In 2004, the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) came to power, and Sonia Gandhi, its chairperson, unexpectedly passed the prime ministerial role to Singh. During his first term, his government introduced landmark initiatives such as the National Rural Health Mission, the Unique Identification Authority of India, the Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, and the Right to Information Act. In 2008, Singh’s administration faced a critical challenge when Left Front parties withdrew support over a historic civil nuclear deal with the United States, nearly causing the government to collapse. He also co-founded BRICS in 2009, further solidifying India’s role on the global stage. The country witnessed rapid economic growth under his leadership.
In the 2009 general election, the UPA returned to power with a stronger mandate, allowing Singh to continue as Prime Minister. At the conclusion of his second term, he stepped aside and did not contest the 2014 general election for the office of Prime Minister. Although he was never a member of the Lok Sabha, Singh represented Assam in the Rajya Sabha from 1991 to 2019 and Rajasthan from 2019 to 2024.
Manmohan Singh was born on 26 September 1932 in Gah, Punjab, British India (now in Punjab, Pakistan), to Gurmukh Singh Kohli and Amrit Kaur. His family belonged to a Punjabi Sikh trading community of Khatri heritage. Singh lost his mother at a very young age and was raised by his paternal grandmother, Jamna Devi, with whom he shared a deep bond. He received his early education in an Urdu-medium school until the age of 10, after which he joined an upper-primary school in Peshawar. Even as Prime Minister, Singh often wrote his Hindi speeches in the Urdu script, though he occasionally used Gurmukhi, the script of his mother tongue, Punjabi.
Following the Partition of India, Singh's family migrated to Haldwani before eventually settling in Amritsar in 1948. There, he attended Hindu College, Amritsar, and later Panjab University, then located in Hoshiarpur, where he excelled in economics. He earned his bachelor's and master's degrees in the subject in 1952 and 1954, respectively, consistently securing the top rank. Singh went on to study at the University of Cambridge, where he completed the Economics Tripos in 1957 as a member of St John’s College.
In a 2005 interview with journalist Mark Tully, Singh reflected on his Cambridge experience:
After completing his studies at Cambridge, Singh returned to India and took up a teaching position at Panjab University. In 1960, he pursued his DPhil at the University of Oxford, joining Nuffield College. His doctoral thesis, supervised by Ian Little, was titled India's Export Performance, 1951–1960: Export Prospects and Policy Implications. This work later became the foundation of his book, India's Export Trends and Prospects for Self-Sustained Growth.
After earning his D.Phil., Manmohan Singh returned to India and began his academic career. From 1957 to 1959, he served as a senior lecturer in economics at Panjab University. He continued there as a reader in economics from 1959 to 1963 and as a professor of economics from 1963 to 1965. Following his tenure at Panjab University, Singh worked with the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) from 1966 to 1969. Recognizing his expertise in economics, Lalit Narayan Mishra appointed him as an advisor to the Ministry of Foreign Trade.
From 1969 to 1971, Singh held the position of professor of international trade at the Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi. In 1972, he was appointed Chief Economic Advisor in the Ministry of Finance, and by 1976, he had risen to the role of Secretary in the Finance Ministry. Between 1980 and 1982, Singh served at the Planning Commission before being appointed Governor of the Reserve Bank of India in 1982 under then Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee, a position he held until 1985. He then became the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission from 1985 to 1987.
After his tenure at the Planning Commission, Singh served as Secretary-General of the South Commission, an independent economic policy think tank based in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1987 to November 1990. Upon his return to India in late 1990, he assumed the role of Economic Advisor to Prime Minister Chandra Shekhar. In March 1991, he was appointed Chairman of the University Grants Commission.
In June 1991, Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao appointed Manmohan Singh as India's Finance Minister. Recalling the event in a 2005 interview with British journalist Mark Tully, Singh shared:
"On the day Rao was finalizing his cabinet, he sent his Principal Secretary to me with a message: ‘The PM would like you to become the Minister of Finance.’ I didn’t take it seriously. The next morning, he tracked me down, visibly angry, and demanded that I get dressed and head to Rashtrapati Bhavan for the swearing-in. That’s how my journey in politics began."
Finance Minister
When Singh assumed office, India was facing a severe economic crisis. The fiscal deficit stood at nearly 8.5% of GDP, the balance of payments was in disarray, and the current account deficit was around 3.5% of GDP. Foreign reserves were critically low at just $1 billion—barely enough to cover two weeks of imports—compared to $600 billion in 2009.
Singh warned Prime Minister Rao and the Congress Party about the gravity of the situation, emphasizing the need for urgent economic reforms. Despite initial resistance from party members, Singh and P. Chidambaram convinced the leadership that deregulation was essential to prevent economic collapse. With Rao’s support, Singh initiated a series of transformative reforms that marked a shift from India’s socialist economy to a more market-oriented one.
These reforms included dismantling the License Raj, reducing state control, lowering import taxes, and opening the economy to Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Singh also began the privatization of public sector enterprises. Though these measures revitalized the economy, Rao’s government faced criticism in other areas and was ultimately voted out in 1996. Reflecting on Singh’s impact, P. Chidambaram likened his role in India’s economic liberalization to that of Deng Xiaoping in China.
In 1993, Singh offered to resign as Finance Minister following a parliamentary investigation into the $1.8 billion securities scandal of 1992, which criticized his ministry for failing to anticipate the crisis. However, Prime Minister Rao rejected his resignation and instead focused on holding the accused individuals accountable.
Leader of Opposition in the Rajya Sabha
Singh was first elected to the Rajya Sabha (India’s upper house of Parliament) in 1991, representing the state of Assam. He was re-elected in 1995, 2001, 2007, and 2013. During the Bharatiya Janata Party’s tenure in power from 1998 to 2004, Singh served as the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha. In 1999, he contested the Lok Sabha elections from South Delhi but was unsuccessful in securing a seat.
Prime minister
First term: 2004–2009
Following the 2004 general elections, the Indian National Congress emerged as the party with the largest number of seats in the Lok Sabha, ending the tenure of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). The Congress formed the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) with its allies and staked its claim to form the government. In a surprising move, Sonia Gandhi, Chairperson of the UPA, nominated Manmohan Singh—a technocrat—as the coalition’s candidate for Prime Minister. Although Singh had never won a direct election, he garnered widespread public support due to his reputation as a clean politician untainted by corruption, a rarity in Indian politics. Singh took the oath as the Prime Minister of India on May 22, 2004.
Economic Policy
As Finance Minister in 1991, Singh had abolished the License Raj, which had hindered economic growth and fostered corruption for decades. His liberalization policies significantly accelerated India's development. As Prime Minister, Singh continued to champion economic growth, achieving notable success. Alongside Finance Minister P. Chidambaram, Singh oversaw an 8–9% annual economic growth rate during his tenure, with India achieving a record GDP growth of 9% in 2007, making it the second-fastest-growing major economy in the world.
Key economic initiatives during Singh’s tenure included the enactment of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) in 2005, which provided rural households with guaranteed employment. His government also continued the Golden Quadrilateral and highway modernization programs initiated by his predecessor, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and implemented reforms in the banking, financial, and public sectors. To support farmers, Singh's administration worked on debt relief programs. In 2005, the Value Added Tax (VAT) was introduced, replacing the sales tax. However, the global inflation crisis in 2007–2008 posed significant challenges.
Healthcare and Education
In 2005, Singh’s government launched the National Rural Health Mission (NHRM), which mobilized half a million community health workers and was praised by American economist Jeffrey Sachs. In 2006, the government implemented a reservation policy, allocating 27% of seats in premier institutions like IITs, IIMs, and AIIMS to Other Backward Classes (OBCs), which sparked nationwide protests.
On July 2, 2009, Singh’s administration introduced the Right to Education Act (RTE), ensuring free and compulsory education for children. Eight new IITs were established across the country, and the government expanded the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan program to combat illiteracy, with initiatives such as mid-day meals and the opening of schools in rural areas.
Security and Home Affairs
In response to evolving security challenges, Singh’s government amended the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) to strengthen anti-terror laws. Following the 2008 Mumbai terror attacks, the National Investigation Agency (NIA) was established to centralize efforts against terrorism. Additionally, the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) was created in February 2009 to implement the Multipurpose National Identity Card, aimed at enhancing national security and facilitating e-governance.
Efforts in Kashmir and Northeast India
Manmohan Singh's administration initiated an extensive reconstruction program in Kashmir aimed at stabilizing the region. While the initiative initially achieved some success, insurgent infiltration and terrorism in Kashmir saw a resurgence post-2009. However, the administration made notable progress in reducing terrorism and fostering peace in Northeast India.
Notable Legislation
During Singh's tenure, landmark legislations like the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) and the Right to Information (RTI) Act were enacted in 2005. While NREGA's effectiveness varied across regions, it played a vital role in providing rural employment. The RTI Act emerged as a powerful tool in India's fight against corruption, promoting transparency and accountability in governance.
Additionally, Singh's government introduced new cash benefit programs targeting widows, pregnant women, and landless laborers, addressing socio-economic vulnerabilities in these groups.
In 2013, the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act was passed by both houses of Parliament. The bill, aimed at ensuring fair compensation and rehabilitation for those affected by land acquisition, received Presidential assent on 27 September 2013 and came into effect on 1 January 2014.
Another significant milestone was the enactment of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act on 4 August 2009. The act provided free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution. When it came into force on 1 April 2010, India joined the ranks of 135 countries that had recognized education as a fundamental right for children.
Foreign Policy
Manmohan Singh continued the pragmatic foreign policy approach initiated by P.V. Narasimha Rao and expanded by Atal Bihari Vajpayee. He maintained the peace process with Pakistan and worked toward resolving the border dispute with China. Notable achievements included the reopening of Nathula Pass in 2006 after over four decades and agreements strengthening ties with Beijing, such as the establishment of sister-city partnerships. As of 2010, China had become India's second-largest trade partner.
Relations with Afghanistan flourished under Singh’s leadership, making India the largest regional donor to Afghanistan. He announced increased aid during Afghan President Hamid Karzai’s 2008 visit, focusing on education, healthcare, and infrastructure.
Singh also prioritized Indo-US relations, culminating in the landmark Indo-US Civilian Nuclear Agreement, which provided India access to American nuclear technology in exchange for IAEA inspections of its civil reactors. This agreement was formalized in October 2008 after extended negotiations. Singh's state visit to the White House in 2009 under President Barack Obama underscored the growing partnership.
Efforts to enhance ties with other major powers, including Japan, the European Union, Brazil, and South Africa, were also evident. The India–Africa Summit in 2006 strengthened India's engagement with African nations. Singh promoted IBSA (India-Brazil-South Africa Dialogue Forum) and contributed to the founding of BRICS in 2009, a group highlighting emergent economic power.
Singh's administration focused on expanding relations with Israel, which became one of India's largest defense partners. Simultaneously, India maintained strong ties with Russia, despite some delays in arms deals, signing agreements to boost cooperation in defense, nuclear energy, and space exploration.
On global conflicts, Singh's government adopted a cautious approach. India abstained from UN Security Council resolutions authorizing NATO action in Libya and condemned NATO’s intervention. During the Syrian and Libyan crises, Singh criticized the West's use of force for regime change. Though slow to recognize Libya's National Transitional Council, India later committed to assisting in Libya's reconstruction and reopened its embassy in 2012.
Through these policies, Singh reinforced India's position as a global economic and strategic player while fostering regional stability and bilateral relationships.
Second term: 2009–2014
In the 2009 general elections, India held elections for the 15th Lok Sabha in five phases between 16 April and 13 May 2009, with results announced on 16 May 2009. The United Progressive Alliance (UPA) led by Congress had a strong performance in states like Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh, enabling them to form a new government. Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to win re-election after completing a full five-year term. The Congress and its allies secured a comfortable majority with 322 out of 543 seats in the House, supported by parties such as the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Samajwadi Party (SP), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), and others.
On 22 May 2009, Manmohan Singh was sworn in for his second term as prime minister in a ceremony at Rashtrapati Bhavan.
In 2012, the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) report on coal block allocations alleged a loss of Rs 1.85 trillion due to allocations made between 2005 and 2009, when Singh served as the coal minister. The report highlighted that coal blocks were allocated without a bidding process.
Additionally, Singh declined to appear before the Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) in April 2013 when called upon by member Yashwant Sinha regarding his alleged involvement in the 2G spectrum case.
After completing his tenure as prime minister on 17 May 2014, Manmohan Singh did not contest the 2014 general elections. He resigned as prime minister when the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)-led National Democratic Alliance (NDA) won the elections. Singh served as acting prime minister until Narendra Modi was sworn in on 26 May 2014. He, along with other notable figures, attended Modi’s swearing-in ceremony.
In 2016, it was announced that Singh would take up the Jawaharlal Nehru Chair at Panjab University, but he eventually did not accept the position. Singh retired from the Rajya Sabha in April 2024 and was succeeded by Sonia Gandhi. He was widely praised for his decency, grace, and integrity. Khushwant Singh, in his book Absolute Khushwant, called him the best prime minister India had, rating him even higher than Jawaharlal Nehru, and lauded his personal integrity, citing an incident where Singh promptly returned a loan after losing the 1999 elections.
Singh's leadership earned international recognition. In 2010, Newsweek named him a world leader respected by other heads of state, calling him “the leader other leaders love.” He also received the World Statesman Award in 2010, with Henry Kissinger praising his leadership for India’s economic transformation. Singh was ranked 18th in the 2010 Forbes list of the World's Most Powerful People and was often regarded as India’s best prime minister since Nehru. However, Time magazine's Asia edition in 2012 criticized him as an "underachiever" and noted his reluctance to push for reforms.
Former U.S. President Barack Obama described Singh in his 2020 memoir A Promised Land as "wise, thoughtful, and scrupulously honest." Despite facing criticism, Singh's reputation remained largely positive, especially for his economic contributions and personal integrity.
Manmohan Singh faced both praise and criticism throughout his political career, with some of his political opponents questioning his strength as a leader. L. K. Advani, a co-founder of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), called Singh a "weak" prime minister, alleging that he was unable to take decisions without instructions from the Gandhi family, particularly referring to Sonia Gandhi. Similarly, BJP leader Narendra Modi, in 2013, dismissed Singh as a "night watchman" and a "puppet" of the Gandhi family.
However, Singh also garnered respect from various quarters, including political opponents. In 2018, Arvind Kejriwal, the leader of the Aam Aadmi Party, expressed admiration for Singh's education and governance, stating that people were "missing an educated PM like Dr. Manmohan Singh." In 2022, Nitin Gadkari, Union Transport Minister in the Modi government, acknowledged Singh's contribution to India's economic liberalization, stating that the country was indebted to him for the new direction that liberalization provided.
In 2024, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, while reflecting on Singh's contributions, praised him for his long-standing service and leadership. He recalled a poignant moment when Singh, despite his health issues, arrived at Parliament in a wheelchair to cast his vote on a key piece of legislation. Modi acknowledged that Singh's role in guiding the House and the country would be remembered.
On 26 December 2024, Singh, at the age of 92, was admitted to the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) after collapsing at his home. He died shortly after hospitalization due to heart disease and old age. The Indian government declared a period of national mourning until 1 January 2025 and announced that Singh would be accorded a state funeral to honor his contributions to the country.
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